Key Points

Fossil fuel:​

• These are the fuel which is formed by natural processes such as the decomposition of dead and buried organisms. 
• Fossil fuels are made from decomposing plants and animals.
• When fossil fuels are burned carbon and hydrogen react with oxygen in the air to carbon dioxide.
• During this reaction, heat is released which further amplifies the reaction.
• The burning of fossil fuels is the world's largest contributor to air pollution.
•  It releases pollutants, including particulate matter, ozone, nitrogen dioxide, sulfur dioxide, mercury, and other hazardous air pollutants.
• Carbon Monoxide (CO) is produced from partial fossil fuel combustion.
• Example: Coal, natural gas, petrol, diesel, kerosene, oil etc.

Thus, Coal, Natural gas and Petroleum are termed as fossil fuels.

Mistake Points

Black gold:

• Black gold is a term for oil or petroleum.
• "Black" because of its appearance when it comes out of the ground.
• "Gold" because it made the oil industry rich.
• Crude Oil is also known as Black Gold.
• Petroleum is used in the manufacture of various products such as pharmaceuticals, plastics, gasoline, synthetic fabrics, etc.
• It is not used for coal and natural gas it is only used for oil and petroleum.

Additional Information 

Biofuel:

• Biofuel is fuel that is produced through contemporary processes from biomass.
• Biofuels are designed to replace gasoline, diesel fuel and coal, which are called “fossil fuels”.
• Biofuels are made mostly from plants that have just been harvested.
• Examples of biofuels include:
  • Ethanol (often made from corn),
  • Biodiesel (sourced from vegetable oils and liquid animal fats),
  • Green diesel (derived from algae and other plant sources), and 
  • Biogas (methane derived from animal manure and other digested organic material).
• Biofuels can be solid, liquid, or gaseous.

Pollutant:

• A pollutant is a substance that contributes to pollution due to its physical, chemical or biological properties.
• There are many different types of air pollutants, such as gases, particulates, and biological molecules. 
• The burning of fossil fuels contributes to air pollution by the release of pollutants like greenhouse gasses and particulate matter.

The correct answer is Communication.

• Optical fiber is made up of plastic or drawing glass, it is used for the transmission of data using light pulses traveling along with a long fiber.
• There are generally three types of fiber optic cable commonly used: single-mode, multimode and plastic optical fiber.
• Fiber optics are used in Cable TV, Telephone, Computer Networking, Surgery and Dentistry, Lighting and decorations.
• Optical Fiber Communication is the technique of communication in which a signal is transmitted in the form of light and the optical fiber is used as a medium of transmitting.
• The signal transmitted in optical fiber is converted from the electrical signal into light and at the receiving end, it is converted back into the electrical signal from the light.

​​ 

The advantages of optical fibers are as follow.

• The fiber optic cables have higher transmission bandwidth than metal cables.
• The amount of data transmission is higher in fiber optic cables.
• The power loss of optics fiber is very low and also helpful in long-distance transmissions.
• Fiber optic cables provided high security and cannot be tapped.
• Fiber optic cables are the most secure way for data transmission.
• Fiber optic cables are immune to electromagnetic interference.
• Fiber optic cables are not affected by electrical noise.​

• An electrical transformer is an electrical device that transfers electrical energy from one electrical circuit to another.
• A nuclear reactor is a device used to control nuclear chain reactions. They are used in nuclear plants to generate electricity.
• Nuclear energy, also called atomic energy, the energy that is released in significant amounts in processes that affect atomic nuclei, the dense cores of atoms. Renewable energy is a better alternative to nuclear energy.

Millets grow on less fertile and sandy soil.

• Jowar, bajra and ragi are the important millets grown in India.
• Though, these are known as coarse grains,
• It can be grown on less fertile and sandy soils.
• It is a hardy crop that needs low rainfall and high to moderate temperature and adequate rainfall
• They have very high nutritional value.
• For example, ragi is very rich in iron, calcium, other micro nutrients and roughage.

 Additional InformationMaize- is also know as corn.

• Its requires moderate temperature, rainfall and lots of sunshine.
• It needs well-drained fertile soils.
• Maize is grown in North America, Brazil, China, Russia, Canada, India, and Mexico.

Cotton: requires high temperature, light rainfall, two hundred and ten frost-free days and bright sunshine for its growth.

• It grows best on black and alluvial soils. China, USA, India

Jute -was also known as the ‘Golden Fibre’.

• It grows well on alluvial soil and requires high temperature, heavy rainfall and humid climate.
• This crop is grown in the tropical areas. India and Bangladesh are the leading producers of jute.

The correct answer is Crop rotation.

• Crop rotation is referred to growing different crops on the same land in a recurring succession.
• Usually, pulses are grown in crop rotation to improve soil fertility.
• By the practice of crop rotation, we can interrupt pest and disease cycles and improve soil health by increasing biomass by growing different crops.

The correct answer is Soyabean.

• Commercial agriculture, or otherwise known as agribusiness, is a cropping method in which crops are raised and livestock are raised in order to sell the products on the market in order to make money.

Commercial crop:

• Commercial farming is a form of market-oriented and profit-motivated farming.
• It occupies a large area of cultivation and requires significant capital input along with heavy use of machinery.
• It includes commercial grain farming, mixed farming, and plantation agriculture.
• Examples of commercial crops include cotton, sugarcane, jute, tea, coffee, tobacco, oilseeds, Soyabean, etc.

Hence, option 1 is the correct answer.

Food crops:

• These crops are grown for food such as cereals: wheat, rice maize, pulses, etc.
• These are annuals and complete their cycle in one season as in the case of wheat, rice, maize, gram.

The correct answer is Shifting.

• Jhoom agriculture is also known as Shifting.

Key Points

• Shifting Agriculture:
  • It is practised by the tribals in the forest areas of Assam, Meghalaya, Nagaland, Manipur, Tripura, Mizoram, Arunachal Pradesh, Odisha, Madhya Pradesh, Jharkhand and Andhra Pradesh.
  • In this type of agriculture, a piece of forest land is cleared mainly by tribal people by felling and burning of trees and crops are grown.
• Jhoom is the name of Shifting Agriculture in the north-east region of India.
• Podu, Dabi, Koman or Bringa in Orissa
• Kumari in the Western Ghats.
• Watra in southeast Rajasthan,
• Penda, Bewar or Dahia and Deppa or Kumari in the Bastar district of Madhya Pradesh.

Additional Information

• Names of shifting agriculture around the world:

The correct answer is It makes some soils impermeable.

Key Points

Salinization:

• Salinity is the presence of salts (such as sodium chloride, magnesium and calcium sulfates) and bicarbonates, in soil and water.

Problems due to soil salinity:

• Agricultural Production- Inefficient osmosis due to high salt concentration can result in dehydration of the plant, causing yield decline or even death of the plant. Salinity affects production in crops, pastures and trees by interfering with nitrogen uptake, reducing growth and stopping plant reproduction.
• Water quality- High levels of salts may affect the taste of drinking water. Chloride in particular has a low taste threshold. Sodium and magnesium sulfate levels in drinking water may produce a laxative effect and reduce the suitability of a water supply for grazing animals.
• Rivers- Salt interacts with in-stream biota (animals and plants), changing the ecological health of streams and estuaries. Salts also help fine materials (such as suspended clay particles) to flocculate, allowing more sunlight to penetrate rivers and leading to harmful algal blooms.
• Terrestrial biodiversity- Salinization can lead to the destruction of the remaining natural habitat in many agricultural areas and the fragmentation of many wildlife corridors.
• Soil erosion- Salinity is often associated with prolonged wetness and lack of surface cover and therefore increases the vulnerability of soils to erosion. It makes some soils impermeable.
• Flood risk- Saline soils have a limited capacity to absorb rainfall, resulting in high rates of run-off. 
• Infrastructure- Salt also corrodes and destroys the infrastructure including houses, roads and playing fields.

The correct answer is subtracting the death rate from the birth rate.

Key Points

• Natural population change is calculated by subtracting the death rate from the birth rate.
• Net migration is the number of immigrants (population moving into the country) minus the number of emigrants (population moving out of the country.
• The fertility rate is the average number of children born alive to a woman taking into consideration current fertility rates.
• The definition of birth is the start of life when a child emerges from the body of its mother.
• The crude birth rate is defined as the number of births during the year divided by the population in that year; the value is expressed per 1 000 persons.

Additional Information

• The third component of population growth is migration. Migration is the movement of people across regions and territories. Migration can be internal (within the country) or international (between the countries).
• The birth rate is the number of live births per thousand persons in a year. It is a major component of growth because, in India, birth rates have always been higher than death rates.
• The death rate is the number of deaths per thousand persons in a year. The main cause of the rate of growth of the Indian population has been the rapid decline in death rates.

The correct answer is Karnataka.

Key Points

• Plantation Agriculture in India
  • The term plantation crop refers to those crops which are cultivated on an extensive scale in a contiguous area, owned and managed by an individual or a company.
  • These crops include tea, coffee, rubber, cocoa, coconut, areca nut, oil palm, palmyrah, and cashew.
  • These are high-value commercial crops of greater economic importance and play a vital role in improving the Indian economy, especially in view of their export potential, employment generation, and poverty alleviation, particularly in the rural sector.
  • Coconut, cashew nut, cocoa, areca nut, oil palm, and palmyrah come under the Ministry of Agriculture while tea, coffee, and rubber are dealt with by the Ministry of Commerce.
  • Tea in Assam and North Bengal coffee in Karnataka are some of the important plantation crops grown in these states. Hence, Option 2 is correct.
  • Since the production is mainly for the market, a well-developed network of transport and communication connecting the plantation areas, processing industries, and markets play an important role in the development of plantations. Therefore, Rajasthan, Punjab, and Odisha are not prominent for plantation agriculture.
• 

WTO stands for World Trade Organisation.

Key Points

• It was founded on 1^st January 1995
• It was set up under the Marrakesh Agreement.
• The agreement was signed in Marrakesh, Morocco, by 124 nations on 15 April 1994
• It replaced the General Agreement on Trade and Tariff (GATT).
• It is headquartered at Geneva, Switzerland.
• The current total members of  WTO is 164 

The correct answer is Methane.

Key Points

• The chief constituent of biogas is Methane(65%).
• Bacteria responsible for biogas production: Bacillus species.
• It is a clean and efficient fuel.
• It is a mixture of:
  • Methane
  • carbon dioxide
  • Hydrogen sulfide
  • Ammonia
• Biogas is produced under anaerobic conditions.
• Raw material for biogas:
  • Animal dunk
  • Plant waste
  • Human extract
  • Domestic waste

 Additional Information

• Methane(CH₄):
  • It is also known as Marsh gas.
  • It is present in Gobar gas.
  • it is present In CNG(compressed natural gas).
  • When methane is burned at 100⁰C it produces Carbon black, which is used for making rubber tyres. 
• Ethene(C₂H₄):
  • It is a plant hormone.
  • used for ripening fruits artificially.
  • The rate of ripening of fruits is controlled by Ethene.
  • It is used in manufacturing polyethylene.
  • Used in the industry for making bags, cables, furniture, etc.
  • Used in toy industries.
• Propane(C₃H₈):
  • It is present in LPG(Liquified Petroleum Gas).
  • It is also present in CNG(Compressed Natural Gas).
  • It is Present in the Cigarette lighter 
  • It is Used in the Plastic industry.
• Ammonia(NH₃):
  • ​It is an ingredient in fertilizers.
  • It is used in rocket fuel.
  • It is used drinking water purifier
  • It is used in food processing additives.
  • Ammonia is also used as a refrigerant gas.

The correct answer is Ladakh.

Key Points

• Changpas tribe is a semi-nomadic tribe that is found in high plateaus along the cold desert of the Ladakh region.
• The tribes mainly work in the summer season and rest during the winter due to less availability of resources.
• The Changpa of Ladakh is high altitude pastoralists, raising mainly yaks and goats. They are also found in Jammu and Kashmir. 
• Among the Ladakh Changpa, those who are still nomadic are known as Phalpa, and they take their herds from in the Hanley Valley to the village of Lato.
• Hanley is home to six isolated settlements, where the sedentary Changpa, the Fangpa resides.
• Despite their different lifestyles, both these groups intermarry.
• The Changpa speak Changskhat, a dialect of Tibetan, and practice Tibetan Buddhism.

Additional Information

• There are around 645 distinct tribes in India and some of them are following
  • ​Arunachal Pradesh: Apatanis, Abor, Dafla, Singpho, Nyishi, Mishmi, Idu, Taroan, Tagin, Adi, Monpa.
  • Kerala: Adiyan, Arandan, Eravallan, Kurumbas, Malai arayan, Moplahs, Uralis, Irular, Kanikaran, Kattunayakan, Kurichchan, Muthuvan.
  • Andaman and Nicobar:  Oraons, Onges, Sentinelese, Shompens.
  • Jammu and Kashmir: Bakarwal, Balti, Beda, Gaddi, Garra, Mon, Purigpa, Sippi, Changpa, Gujjar.

The process of taking out minerals from rocks buried under the earth’s surface is called mining.

Key Points

• Deep bores, called shafts, have to be made to reach mineral deposits that lie at great depths.
• This is called shaft mining. 
• Shaft mining is a form of underground mining where shafts are pushed vertically from top to bottom to excavate the ores and minerals.
• It is also called shaft sinking.
• It is best suited for concentrated minerals such as iron, coal, etc

Hence, option 1 is the correct answer.

Additional Information

Open Cast Mining:

• Open Cast Mining is the process under which minerals are mined near the earth's surface.
• Opencast mining is the process that involves the removal of ore from seams relatively near the surface by means of an open pit.
• These mines occupy a large area of land for excavation of the ore and disposal of the overburden.

Drilling is a cutting process that uses a drill bit to cut a hole of circular cross-section in solid materials or ground.

Quarrying is the process of removing rock, sand, gravel, or minerals from the ground in order to use them to produce materials for construction or other uses.

Landslides:

• A landslide is defined as the movement of a mass of rock, debris, or earth down a slope.
• Landslides are a type of "mass wasting," which denotes any down-slope movement of soil and rock under the direct influence of gravity.
• The term "landslide" encompasses five modes of slope movement: falls, topples, slides, spreads, and flows.
• These are further subdivided by the type of geologic material (bedrock, debris, or earth).
• Debris flows (commonly referred to as mudflows or mudslides) and rockfalls are examples of common landslide types.

​ 

Causes of Landslides:

• Almost every landslide has multiple causes. Slope movement occurs when forces acting down-slope which is mainly due to gravity exceed the strength of the earth materials that compose the slope.
• Causes include factors that increase the effects of down-slope forces and factors that contribute to low or reduced strength. 
• Landslides can be initiated in slopes already on the verge of movement by rainfall, snowmelt, changes in water level, stream erosion, changes in groundwater, earthquakes, volcanic activity, disturbance by human activities, or any combination of these factors.
• Human activity, such as agriculture and construction, can increase the risk of a landslide. Irrigation, deforestation, excavation, and water leakage are some of the common activities that can help destabilize, or weaken, a slope.
• Earthquake shaking and other factors can also induce landslides underwater. 
• The loss of forest vegetation leads to a reduction in soil cohesion and a decrease in the shear strength of the soil profile. As a result, the slope becomes more susceptible to landslides, and the return time of landslides decreases. When a landslide removes the soil profile, there may not be adequate time for seedlings to grow and enhance soil stability.

From the above discussion, it can be concluded that heavy metal road in a mountain valley, multi-storey building and dam building is not a safe construction practice at landslide-prone areas.

• An uneven spatial distribution of population in India suggests a close relationship between population and physical, socioeconomic and historical factors.
• As far as the physical factors are concerned, it is clear that climate along with terrain and availability of water largely determines the pattern of the population distribution.
• Consequently, we observe that the North Indian Plains, deltas and Coastal Plains have higher proportion of population than the interior districts of southern and central Indian States, Himalayas, some of the north eastern and the western states.
• However, development of irrigation (Rajasthan), availability of mineral and energy resources (Jharkhand) and development of transport network (Peninsular States) have resulted in moderate to high concentration of population in areas which were previously very thinly populated.
• Among the socio-economic and historical factors of distribution of population, the important ones are:
  • evolution of settled agriculture and agricultural development
  • pattern of human settlement
  • development of transport network, industrialisation and urbanisation.
  • It is observed that the regions falling in the river plains and coastal areas of India have remained the regions of larger population concentration.
  • Even though the uses of natural resources like land and water in these regions have shown signs of degradation, the concentration of population remains high because of an early history of human settlement and development of transport networks.
  • On the other hand, the urban regions of Delhi, Mumbai, Kolkata, Bengaluru, Pune, Ahmedabad, Chennai and Jaipur have high concentration of population due to industrial development and urbanisation drawing a large number of rural-urban migrants.

Option 4 is incorrect.

Key Points

• Ganga–Brahmaputra plain of India:
  • Ganga–Brahmaputra plain of India are drained by Ganga and Brahmaputra rivers.
  • Due to the availability of water and other resources, these plains are one of the overpopulated regions of India. Hence statement 1 is correct.
  • The combined population density in the states of Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, West Bengal, and Assam is higher than the national average.
  • These states lie in the area of Ganga–Brahmaputra plains.
• Water availability in India:
  • India has only a four percent water share of the world's fresh rainwater resources.
  • So, there is a basic necessity to save, reuse and repurpose.
  • When India became independent, the availability of water was 5,000 liters per capita now it has become 1,100 liters. Hence statement 2 is correct.
  • There is a basic decline in the availability of water due to human and cattle population growth.
• Shelterbelts: shelterbelts are strips of vegetation composed of trees and shrubs grown along the coasts to protect coastal areas from high-velocity winds and also from devastations like the ones caused by the tsunami. Hence statement 3 is correct.
• Human interference and climate change: Human interference and changes in climate will further deteriorate the natural ecosystem. Hence statement 4 is incorrect.
  • Climate is an important environmental influence on ecosystems.
  • Changing climate affects ecosystems in a variety of ways.
  • For example, warming may force species to migrate to higher latitudes or higher elevations where temperatures are more conducive to their survival.
  • Similarly, as the sea level rises, saltwater intrusion into a freshwater system may force some key species to relocate or die, thus removing predators or prey that are critical in the existing food chain.
  • Human impact on the environment or anthropogenic impact on the environment includes changes to biophysical environments and to ecosystems, biodiversity, and natural resources caused directly or indirectly by humans, including global warming, environmental degradation (such as ocean acidification), mass extinction, and biodiversity loss, ecological crisis, and ecological collapse. 

The correct answer is option 3.

Key PointsSolar Thermal Power

• Solar thermal power production means the conversion of solar energy into electricity through thermal energy. Hence, statement 1 is correct. 
• In this procedure, solar energy is first utilized to heat up a working fluid, gas, water or any other volatile liquid. Hence, statement 2 is correct. 
• This heat energy is then converted into mechanical energy m a turbine.
• Finally, a conventional generator coupled to a turbine converts this mechanical energy into electrical energy.

Additional InformationPhotoelectric Cells:

• This method converts the sun’s energy into electricity.
• Photovoltaic cells are the most popular form of converting solar energy into electricity.
• These cells are silicon-based pieces of materials that absorb the sun’s light. Hence, statement 3 is not correct. 
• When the sunlight enters the cells, it causes the electrons to move.
• These electrons move in a certain direction which is known as current. This electricity is in the form of direct current.

The correct answer is Biosphere.

Key Points

• The narrow zone of contact between the lithosphere, hydrosphere, and atmosphere is called the Biosphere.
• The Biosphere is characterized as an area that contains all living organisms and the products of their activities.
• Eduard Suess first coined the term Biosphere in1875.
• As a result, it plays a critical role in the maintenance of ecosystems, i.e., the existence of species and their reciprocal interactions. 
• The biosphere provides important resources.
• Many people rely on the biosphere for basic necessities including food, medicine, construction materials, and fuel.
• Indigenous peoples, in particular. Except for salt, all food comes from the biosphere, but established societies prefer to farm rather than forage.

Additional Information

• The ecosystem is the structural and functional unit of ecology where the living organisms interact with each other and the surrounding environment.
• An ecosystem is defined as a community of lifeforms in concurrence with non-living components, interacting with each other.
• The term Ecosystem was first coined by A.G.Tansley, an English botanist, in 1935.
• The environment can be defined as a sum total of all the living and non-living elements and their effects that influence human life.
• An atmosphere is a blanket of gases that surrounds Earth.
• It is held near the surface of the planet by Earth’s gravitational attraction.
• Argon, oxygen, and nitrogen from the three main constitutions of the atmosphere.
• The atmosphere is a protective layer of gases that shelters all life on Earth, keeping temperatures within a relatively small range and blocking out harmful rays of sunlight.

The Correct Answer is Subsistence ​Farming.

Key Points

• Subsistence farming involves growing crops and keeping animals for the sole purpose of feeding the farmer and his family.
• It involves the use of simple farm tools on small pieces of land.
• Most subsistence farmers are believed to be poor and thus cannot afford to buy improved seeds and fertilizers.
• Subsistence agriculturalists target farm output for survival and for mostly local requirements, with little or no surplus.

The correct answer is Births, deaths, and migration.

Key Points

• Population change:
  • Population change, defined generally, is the difference in the size of a population between the end and the beginning of a given time period (usually one year).
  • The main components of population change are births, deaths, and migration. Hence statement 2 is correct.
  • “Natural increase” is defined as the difference between live births and deaths.
  • “Net migration” is defined as the difference between the number of people moving into an area and the number of people moving out.

  • The population change is calculated by the formula -- [Population change = (Births + Immigration) – (Deaths + Emigration)]

Additional Information

• Demographics (or demography) is the study of population statistics, their variation, and their causes.
• These statistics include birth rates, death rates (and hence life expectancy), migration rates, and sex ratios.

• Regional imbalance is defined as a state of disequilibrium in terms of economic and social criteria existing between two regions over the landscape. It is a condition in which an economy fails to extend benefits equally to all regions in the country or class in society. This uneven economic development is either due to historical processes like colonialization or due to socio-economic processes. It exists both in capitalist and socialist countries, for example, capital concentration in West Europe and North America.
• Regional imbalance can be spatial (inter-regional imbalance such as Eastern Uttar Pradesh and Western Uttar Pradesh, intraregional such as Uttar Pradesh and Punjab) or social (class differentiation such as regions with the dwellings of the people from lower cast may be less developed than that of the higher cast).
• Social disparities relate to population in wider context of life quality, living level, social inequality and social pathology. But they do not relate to manpower as an economic category that is included among economic disparities.

Social disparities are based on

• population, including living level (incl. households accessories), schooling level, health, migration and segregation
• social infrastructure, including health service, educational system, social services , culture and housing
• social pathology, including social exclusion, criminality (incl. safety) and accident rate.

Economic disparities are based on

• economic performance including performance, productivity and external relations of economy
• economic structure, including sectoral structure and structure according to subjects
• development potential, including research and development, foreign capital and investments,
• manpower, including economically active population, employment, unemployment and mobility

South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation (SAARC)

• The South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation (SAARC) was established with the signing of the SAARC Charter in Dhaka on 8 December 1985.
• The idea of regional cooperation in South Asia was first raised in November 1980.
• After consultations, the foreign secretaries of the seven founding countries Bangladesh, Bhutan, India, Maldives, Nepal, Pakistan, and Sri Lanka met for the first time in Colombo in April 1981.
• Afghanistan became the newest member of SAARC at the 13th annual summit in 2005.
• The Headquarters and Secretariat of the Association are in Kathmandu, Nepal.

Key PointsSAARC comprises of eight-member States:

• Afghanistan
• Bangladesh
• Bhutan
• India
• Maldives
• Nepal
• Pakistan
• Sri Lanka

Additional Information

The North American Free Trade Agreement

• The North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) was a treaty between Canada, Mexico, and the United States that eliminated most tariffs between the countries. By eliminating tariffs, NAFTA increased investment opportunities.
• It was replaced by the United States-Mexico-Canada Agreement (USMCA) on July 1, 2020.
• NAFTA was the world’s largest free trade agreement when it was established on January 1, 1994.
• NAFTA was the first time two developed nations signed a trade agreement with an emerging market country.

The Asia Pacific Economic Cooperation

• The Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation (APEC) is an inter-governmental forum that promotes free trade throughout the Asia-Pacific region​
• APEC is headquartered in Singapore and has 21 member nations.
•  Australia, Brunei, Canada, Indonesia, Japan, Korea, Malaysia, New Zealand, the Philippines, Singapore, Thailand, and the U.S.  China, Hong Kong, Taiwan, Mexico, Papua New Guinea, Chile, Peru, Russia, and Vietnam.

The Mercado Comun del Cono Sur or Southern Common Market

• The Southern Common Market (MERCOSUR for its Spanish initials) is a regional integration process, initially established by Argentina, Brazil, Paraguay and Uruguay, and subsequently joined by Venezuela and Bolivia* -the latter still complying with the accession procedure.

• Its official working languages are Spanish and Portuguese. The working documents’ official version will be that of the host country language of each meeting.

The correct answer is Ecological footprint.

Key Points

• The minimum area of the land required to completely sustain the life of one person is called his Ecological Footprint.
• The Ecological Footprint is the only metric that measures how much nature a person has and how much nature he uses.
• It is accounting that measures the demand on and supply of nature.
• It measures the ecological assets that a given population or product requires to produce the natural resources it consumes (including plant-based food and fibre products, livestock and fish products, timber and other forest products, space for urban infrastructure) and to absorb its waste, especially carbon emissions.
• The Ecological Footprint tracks the use of productive surface areas.
  • Typically these areas are cropland, grazing land, fishing grounds, built-up land, forest area, and carbon demand on land.

• In ecology, Biota means plant and animal life in general.
  • The types of plant and animal life found in specific regions at specific times.
• All the plant and animal life of a particular region.
• The organisms that occupy an ecological Niche or ecosystem.
• Soil biota consists of the micro-organisms (bacteria, fungi, and algae), soil animals (protozoa, nematodes, mites, springtails, spiders, insects, and earthworms), and plants living all or part of their lives in or on the soil or pedosphere.
• A biome is a large community of vegetation and wildlife adapted to a specific climate.
  • The five major types of biomes are aquatic, grassland, forest, desert, and tundra.
  • Land-based biomes are called terrestrial biomes. Water-based biomes are called aquatic biomes.
  • Temperatures, precipitation amounts, and prevalent organisms characterize the biomes of the world.
• In ecology, a niche is the role or job of a species in a habitat.
  • The competitive exclusion principle says that two species can't coexist if they occupy the same niche.
  • Two species whose niches overlap may evolve by natural selection to have more distinct niches, resulting in resource partitioning.
  • Each species fits into an ecological community in its own special way and has its own tolerable ranges for many environmental factors.

Concept:

Population explosion:

• Rapid population growth is referred to as a population explosion.
• Population explosion is the result when the birth rate is more than the death rate.
• The overall development in various fields like health facilities and better living conditions decreased the death rate.
• While the birth is going at a good pace.
• This creates a great difference between the birth rate and death rate.
• And results in a population explosion.

Explanation: 

Some major causes of population explosions are:

• Advancement of the health care facilities.
• Better living conditions.
• Widening gap between birth and death rates.
• High illiteracy.
• Low marriage age.
• Improved agriculture productivity.

Thus,the main cause of population explosion in the world is excellent healthcare.

Non-renewable resources:

• Non-renewable resources are those which have limited stock.
• Once the stocks are exhausted it may take thousands of years to be renewed or replenished.
• Since this period is much more than human life spans, such resources are considered non-renewable.
• Coal, petroleum, and natural gas are some examples.

Key Points

Natural Gas:

• The mixture of hydrocarbon gases with methane being the primary component is called natural gas.
• Hydrogen, hydrogen sulphide, nitrogen, carbon monoxide and carbon dioxide are other gases that are present in minute traces. 
• Natural gas is formed as fossil fuel from the decaying remains of pre-historic plant and animal life.
• Methane is an odourless gas that is colourless and easily inflammable.
• It is also known as methyl hydride or marsh gas.
• Since its a fossil fuel, it is a finite fuel.

Important Points

There are basically two sources of energy:  

Thus, natural gas is an example of a conventional non-renewable energy source.

The correct answer is Meditteranean region.

Key Points

• Mediterranean vegetation is dominated by evergreen shrubs and trees adapted to the distinctive climatic regime of summer drought and cool moist winters.
• It is mostly found around the Mediterranean sea in Europe, Africa and Asia.
• Citrus fruits like oranges, figs, olives and grapes are commonly cultivated in Mediterranean region.
• This is because people have removed the natural vegetation in order to cultivate what they want to.
• Brazil, the Mediterranean countries, China and the United States account for about two-thirds of the total citrus production.

 Thus, we can say that citrus fruits such as oranges, figs, olives and grapes are commonly cultivated in the Mediterranean regions.

Overgrazing is NOT is correct.

• Soil conservation is a technique aimed at preserving the soil.
• Overgrazing is NOT a method of soil conservation.

Additional Information

There are various methods for soil conservation such as afforestation, manuring and crop rotation, step farming, windbreaks, strip cropping, mulching.

Strip cropping

• Strip cropping helps to stop soil erosion by creating natural dams for water, helping to preserve the strength of the soil.
• Certain layers of plants will absorb minerals and water from the soil more effectively than others.
• When water reaches the weaker soil that lacks the minerals needed to make it stronger, it normally washes it away.
• When strips of soil are strong enough to slow down water from moving through them, the weaker soil can't wash away like it normally would. Because of this, farmland stays fertile much longer. It helps in soil conservation.

Crop rotation

• It is the method of farming in which different types of crops are grown in the same area in different seasons.
• Judiciously applied crop rotation can improve soil structure and fertility by alternating deep-rooted and shallow-rooted plants. In turn this can reduce erosion and increase infiltration capacity, thereby reducing downstream flood risk. It gives various benefits to the soil. 

Mulching

• It is the process of applying a layer of material on the soil in order to conserve soil moisture, improve fertility.
• The main strength of mulching is to conserve soil moisture by reducing surface evaporation and controlling soil erosion.

Farming can be classified into two main types. These are subsistence farming and commercial farming.

• Subsistence farming can be further classified as intensive subsistence and primitive subsistence farming.
• Commercial farming can also be further classified into subgroups, one of them is Plantation farming.

Features of Plantation farming:

• Plantation farming is a form of commercial farming where crops are grown for the purpose of making profits.
• The fact that crops are grown for profits means that large tracts of land are needed to make this type of farming successful.
• This form of farming is mainly found in areas that experience a tropical climate. 
• Plantation agriculture was introduced by the Europeans in colonies situated in the tropics.
• Some of the important plantation crops are tea, coffee, cocoa, rubber, cotton, oil palm, sugarcane, bananas, and pineapples.
• Tropical equatorial biomes soil is acidic and poor in nutrients.
• Plantations exist on every continent possessing a tropical climate.
• Highly productive soil is found in the tropics which help plantation to grow. 

Hence, option 1 is the correct answer.

The correct answer is Farm equipment manufacturing.

Key Points

• Secondary Sector:
  • It includes construction, manufacturing, and processing.
  • Farm equipment manufacturing can be classified as a part of this sector of an economy.
  • Examples of the secondary sector include turning metals into tools and automobiles, Refining petroleum into gasoline, and energy production, etc.

• Primary Sector:
  • It includes the extraction of raw materials.
  • It includes agricultural and allied activities.
  • Examples of the primary sector include Farming, Fishing, Coal mining, Oil extraction, Diamond mining, etc.
• ​Tertiary Sector:
• • it includes commercial services.
  • Examples of the Tertiary sector include Consulting services, Restaurants, School teachers, Tourism, etc.
• Quaternary Sector:
  • It is related to ICT and research development.
  • Examples of the Quaternary sector include research and development, data processing, financial services, etc.

The Correct Answer is Option 2 i.e Magnetite.

Key Points

• Iron Ore:
  • It is a metallic mineral and is found in the form of ore or compound in nature.
  • Earth's most important iron ore deposits are found in sedimentary rocks.
  • They formed from chemical reactions that combined iron and oxygen in marine and freshwaters.
  • There are different type of iron ore:
    • Haematite: 
      • It contains about 60 to 70% iron.
      • It is massive, hard, compact, and lumpy ore with reddish or ochre red in color.
    • Magnetite:
      • It is the best type of iron ore and contains up to 72.4% iron in itself.
      • It is dark brown to blackish in color and is termed black ore.
    • Limonite:
      • The ferrous content of limonite ore varies from 35-50%..It is called brown ore
    • Siderite:
      • It contains iron ranging from 10-48%.
      • It is an inferior variety of iron ore.

The correct answer is 2 and 3 only.

Key Points

• Sugar Industry:
  • The sugar industry is the second most important agro-based industry in the country.
  • Brazil is the top country with sugar cane production in the world.
  • The top 5 countries (others are India, China, Thailand, and Pakistan) account for 73.70% of it. Hence, statement 2 is not correct.
  • India accounts for about 19 per cent of the world's production of sugarcane. But it occupies only 2.4 per cent of the total cropped area in the country.
  • This industry employs more than 4 lakh persons directly and a large number of farmers indirectly.
  • The sugar industry is seasonal because of the seasonality of raw materials. Hence, statement 1 is correct.
  • The development of the industry on modern lines dates back to 1903 when a sugar mill was started in Marhaura (Saran) Bihar.
  • Subsequently, sugar mills were started in other parts of Bihar and Uttar Pradesh. In 1950-51, 139 factories were in operation.
  • The number of sugar factories rose to 662 in 2010-11.
  • Sugarcane is a weight-losing crop.
  • The ratio of sugar to sugarcane varies between 9 to 12 per cent depending on its variety.
  • Its sucrose content begins to dry during haulage after it has been harvested from the field.
  • Better recovery of sugar is dependent upon its being crushed within 24 hours of its harvesting.

Additional Information

• Sugar factories hence are located within the cane-producing regions.
• Maharashtra has emerged as a leading sugar producer in the country and produces more than one-third of the total production of sugar in the country
• Uttar Pradesh is the second-largest producer of sugar.
• The sugar factories are concentrated in two belts – the Ganga-Yamuna doab and the Tarai region.
• The major sugar-producing centres in the Ganga -Yamuna doab are Saharanpur, Muzaffarnagar, Meerut, Ghaziabad, Baghpat, and Bulandshahr districts; while Kheri Lakhimpur, Basti, Gonda, Gorakhpur, Bahraich are important sugar-producing districts in the Tarai region.
• The crop yield is low in Northern India than in Southern India. Uttar Pradesh's yield is low, but in Maharashtra, Karnataka, and Tamil Nadu the yield is high. Hence, statement 3 is not correct.
• 

Concept:

Forest conservation:

• The Government of India proposed to have a nationwide forest conservation policy and adopted a forest policy in 1952, which was further modified in 1988.
• It aimed at:
  • Maintaining environmental stability and restoring forests where ecological balance was disturbed.
  • Conserving the natural heritage of the country, its biological diversity and genetic pool.
  • Checks soil erosion, an extension of the desert lands and reduction of floods and droughts.
  • Increasing the forest cover through social forestry and afforestation on degraded land.
  • Increasing the productivity of forests to make timber, fuel, fodder and food available to rural populations dependent on forests.
  • Creating a massive people's movement involving women to encourage the planting of trees, and stop the felling of trees.

Explanation:

Social forestry:

• Social forestry means the management and protection of forests and afforestation on barren lands.
• Its main purpose is environmental, social and rural development.
• The National Commission on Agriculture (1976) has classified social forestry into three categories.
• These are urban forestry, rural forestry and farm forestry.
• Urban forestry:
  • ​It pertains to the raising and management of trees on public and privately owned lands in and around urban centres such as green belts, parks, roadside avenues, industrial and commercial green belts, etc.
• Rural forestry:
  • It lays emphasis on the promotion of agro-forestry and community forestry.
• ​Farm forestry:
  • ​Farm forestry is a term applied to the process under which farmers grow trees for commercial and non-commercial purposes on their farmlands.

Important Points

• Agro-forestry is the raising of trees and agricultural crops on the same land inclusive of the waste patches.
• It combines forestry with agriculture, thus, altering the simultaneous production of food, fodder, fuel, timber and fruit.
• Community forestry involves the raising of trees on public or community land such as the village pasture and temple land, roadside, canal bank, strips along railway lines, schools etc.

Thus, social forestry means the management and protection of forests and afforestation of barren lands for helping the environment.

The correct answer is Primary.

Key Points

• The primary sector of the economy is related to agriculture.
• The primary sector is also called 'agriculture and related sector'.
• The production of a commodity through the natural process is an activity associated with the primary sector.
• The primary sector is related to the extraction and harvesting of natural products.
• The primary sector consists of agriculture, dairy, fishing, forestry. 

Additional Information

• The secondary sector is also called the manufacturing sector.
  • It covers activities in which natural products are changed into other forms through ways of manufacturing that we associate with industrial activities.
  • It is also called as industrial sector.
• ​The tertiary sector consists of some essential services that may not directly help in the production of goods.
  • The other name of the tertiary sector is 'service sector'.
  • It provides services such as retail sales, entertainment, and financial organizations.
  • Services based on information technology such as internet cafes, ATM booths, call centres, and software companies are coming under the tertiary sector.
• The quaternary sector is said to the intellectual aspect of the economy.
  • The quaternary sector along with the tertiary sector has replaced most of the primary and secondary employment as the basis for economic growth.

The correct answer is Falkan Mark

Key Points Falkan Mark

• According to Falken Mark, a Swedish expert, water stress occurs when water availability is less than 1,000 cubic metre per person per day.
• Professor Malin Falkenmark is a globally renowned water expert and currently serves as Senior Scientific Advisor to the Stockholm International Water Institute (SIWI).
• As Senior Scientific Advisor, Malin is a leading contributor to the institute’s scientific agenda.
• She is an active author, lecturer, and advocate on behalf of SIWI.
• Malin’s interests are interdisciplinary, focusing on water scarcity in developing countries and the policy implication of land-water-ecosystem linkages.
• Prof. Falkenmark spent most of her scientific career as an Executive Secretary of the National Committee for UNESCO’s International Hydrological Decade/Programme housed by Sweden's Natural Science Research Council.
• During this time, she introduced the water scarcity/water crowding indicator and the concepts of green and blue water that made her internationally renowned. 

Key Points

Viticulture:

• The cultivation and harvesting of grapes are called viticulture.
• Viticulture is the specialty of the Mediterranian region.
• The best quality wines in the world with distinctive flavors are produced from this region such as Port wine is famous in Portugal, Sherry in Southern Spain, etc. 

Additional Information

The correct answer is Monoculture in the area.

• Monoculture farming is a form of agriculture that involves growing only one type of crop at one time on a specific field.
• It is widely used in industrial farming as well as in organic farming.

Key Points

• Monoculture planting maximizes the efficient use of soil and local climate conditions.
• The monoculture technique helps farmers to increase efficiency in planting, managing, and harvesting but it also increases the risk of diseases or pest occurrences.
• The positive effects of monoculture farming are mostly seen in crops such as rice and wheat.
• The polyculture system, on the other hand, involves growing two or more crops at the same time.

Concept:

• Rainwater harvesting is a method to capture and store rainwater for various uses.
• It is also used to recharge groundwater aquifers.

Explanation:

• Rainwater harvesting has been practiced through various methods by different communities in the country for a long time.
• Traditional rainwater harvesting in rural areas is done by using surface storage bodies, like lakes, ponds, irrigation tanks, etc.
• In Rajasthan, rainwater harvesting structures are locally known as Kund or Tanka.
• Kund or Tanka is a covered underground tank.
• These are constructed near or in the house or village to store harvested rainwater.
• There is a wide scope to use rainwater harvesting techniques to conserve precious water resources.
•  It can be done by harvesting rainwater on rooftops and open spaces. 

Thus, rainwater harvesting structures locally known as Kund or Tanka are constructed in Rajasthan.

The correct answer is option 4.

Key Points

Diversity of crops grown across the country:

• Rice-Wheat: UP, Punjab, Haryana, Bihar, West Bengal, Madhya Pradesh.
• Rice-Rice: Irrigated and Humid coastal system of Orissa, Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, and Kerala.
• Rice- Groundnut: Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Orissa, and Maharashtra
• Rice-Pulses: Chhattisgarh, Orissa, and Bihar.
• Maize-Wheat: UP, Rajasthan, MP, and Bihar.
• Sugarcane-Wheat: UP, Punjab, and Haryana account for 68% of the area under sugarcane. The other states which cover the crops are; Karnataka and MP.
• Cotton-Wheat: Punjab, Haryana, West UP, Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu.
• Soya bean-Wheat: Maharashtra, MP, and Rajasthan. Hence, option 4 is not correct.
• Legume Based Cropping Systems (Pulses-Oilseeds): MP, Gujarat, Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh, and Karnataka.

​The correct answer is Poverty.

Key Points

• A cause for the Migration of unskilled workers in poverty.
• The unskilled workers migrate searching for ways to provide for their families and to escape unemployment, war, or poverty in their countries of origin.
• The Indian Census (2011) data calculated the total number of internal migrants accounting for inter and intra-state movement to be 450 million, an increase of 45% since the Census 2001 (De, 2019).
• Uttar Pradesh (UP), Bihar, Madhya Pradesh (MP), Rajasthan are among the major origin states of migration in India.
• Delhi, Kerala, Maharashtra, Gujarat, and Tamil Nadu are among the important destination states for these migrant workers.

Additional Information

• International Labour Organization brings together governments, employers and workers of 187 member States, to set labour standards, develop policies and devise programmes promoting decent work for all women and men.
• ILO was established in 1919 by the Treaty of Versailles as an affiliated agency of the League of Nations.
• Its headquarters are in Geneva, Switzerland.
• The President/ Director-General of ILO as of October 2021 is ‎Mr Guy Ryder.

The correct answer is Black Soils.

• Black soils are found in lava-covered areas and are often referred to as regur but are popularly known as "black cotton soils" since cotton has been the most common traditional crop in areas where they are found.
• Black soils are derivatives of trap lava and are spread mostly across interior Gujarat, Maharashtra, Karnataka, and Madhya Pradesh on the Deccan lava plateau and the Malwa plateau.
• They are poor in humus yet highly moisture-retentive, thus responding well to irrigation.

Concept-

• Demography is the study of statistics such as births, deaths, income, or the incidence of disease, which illustrate the changing structure of human populations. It is the statistical study of human populations especially with reference to size and density, distribution, and vital statistics. 

Explanation-

• There is a great variation among regions in doubling their population. Developed countries take more time to double their population as compared to developing countries. The growth of the population is low in developed countries as compared to developing countries.
• There is a negative correlation between economic development and population growth. Most of the population growth is taking place in the developing world, where the population is exploding. 
• The main reason for that is a young growing population is considered an asset for any developing country as it contributes to the working population. Hence, a low fertility rate is observed in developed countries compared to developing ones.
• This could be substantiated by the example of - Japan pyramid has a narrow base and a tapered top showing low birth and death rates. The population growth in developed countries is usually zero or negative.

The correct answer is inter-cropping.

Key Points

• Intercropping involves growing two or more crops simultaneously on the same field in definite pattern but they are not mixed with each other.
  • They are grown inset pattern.
  • They are grown in alternating rows.
  • This pattern prevents pests and diseases to spread in all the plants of one crop in the field.

Additional Information

•  Mixed cropping is the practice of cultivating more than one crop, which is the growing of two or more crops simultaneously in the same field.
  • For example, wheat + gram, wheat + mustard, etc. crops are selected such that their nutrient requirements are different.
• In agriculture and gardening, hybrid seed is produced by cross-pollinated plants.
  • Hybrids are chosen to improve the characteristics of the resulting plants, such as better yield, greater uniformity, improved color, disease resistance.
  • An important factor is the heterosis or combining ability of the parent plants.

The environment is the air, water, and land in or on which people, animals, and plants live. Environment is our basic life support system. It provides the air we breathe, the water we drink, the food we eat and the land where we live. 

• It is a combination of natural and human-made phenomena. While the natural environment refers to both biotic and abiotic conditions existing on the earth.
• Land, water, air, plants and animals comprise the natural environment.
• The term built environment, or built world, refers to the human-made surroundings that provide the setting for human activity, ranging in scale from buildings to parks.
• It has been defined as "the human-made space in which people live, work, and recreate on a day-to-day basis." Settlement, agriculture, and transport are human-made environments but the land is not.

Hence, it is clear that land is not a component of a human-made environment.

Concept:

Village:

• It is a kind of small settlement.
• This kind of settlement is mainly found in rural areas.
• The size of this settlement is generally larger than a hamlet but it is smaller than a town.
• The number of inhabitants in the village is mainly between 500-2500.

Explanation:

Development:

• The goal of development is to improve people's and places' economic and social conditions.
• It's also about fairness and improving human capabilities.
• The basic unit of development under the integrated rural development programme (IRDP) is a village.
• This IRDP's main objective is to provide employment to the poor in rural areas, enhance their living standard, and develop their skill set.
• Water, sanitation, housing, a lack of poverty, electricity, health, the environment, education, and employment are all indicators of a village's development.

Thus, the village is the basic unit of development.

Additional InformationUrbanisation:​

• Urban areas are characterised by high human population density and vast human-built features.
• Due to heavy population, urbanisation and industrialisation, several problems and threats have arisen in urban areas.

Industrialization:

• When an economy of a place is transformed from agriculture-based to producing manufacturing goods then this process is called industrialization.
• This industrialization increased the standard of living.

• Socialization is the process to conform to the norms and roles required for integration into a community by acquiring knowledge, language, value and social skill.
• A family is the basic unit of socialization. 

The correct answer is Petroleum Industry.

Key Points

• Small scale industries:
  • Small scale industries are industries that are mostly spread over a small, local area and do not require large equipment or extensive manufacturing procedures in the production of a commodity. Such as Cotton, Sugar, handloom industries.
  • Small Scale Industries are industries in which manufacturing, production and rendering of services are done on small scale.
  • The investment limit is up to Rs.5 crore while the annual turnout is up to Rs. 10 crores.
• ​Large scale industries:
  • Large scale industries are referred to as those industries that are having huge infrastructure, raw material, high manpower requirements and large capital requirements.
  • Those organisations having a fixed asset of more than 10 crore rupees are considered to be large scale industries.
    1. Iron and Steel Industry
    2. Automobile Industry
    3. Textile Industry
    4. Telecommunication Industry
    5. Information Technology Industry
    6. Petroleum and Natural Gas Industry
    7. Silk Industry
    8. Fertiliser Industry
    9. Jute Industry
    10. Paper Industry
    11. Cement Industry
  • The petroleum industry is a large scale industry as it involves extensive processes of exploration, refining, transportation and marketing. 

Shifting cultivation is an agricultural system in which plots of land are cultivated temporarily, then abandoned while post-disturbance fallow vegetation is allowed to freely grow while the cultivator moves on to another plot.

• The period of cultivation is usually terminated when the soil shows signs of exhaustion or, more commonly, when the field is overrun by weeds.
• The length of time that a field is cultivated is usually shorter than the period over which the land is allowed to regenerate by lying fallow. 

Important Points

Names of Shifting cultivation in different countries:

Thus, we can say that Shifting cultivation is also known as Milpa in Mexico.

The correct answer is Coal.

Mineral fuels are essential for the generation of power, required by agriculture, industry, transport, and other sectors of the economy. Mineral fuels like coal, petroleum, and natural gas (known as fossil fuels),

Smelting of iron ore:

• Smelting involves heating up ore until the metal becomes spongy and the chemical compounds in the ore begin to break down.
• Most important, it releases oxygen from the iron ore, which makes up a high percentage of common iron ores.
• Coal is one of the important minerals which is mainly used in the generation of thermal power and smelting of iron ore.
• The most primitive facility used to smelt iron is a bloomery.
• Smelting, the process by which a metal is obtained, either as the element or as a simple compound, from its ore by heating beyond the melting point, ordinarily in the presence of oxidizing agents, such as air, or reducing agents, such as coke.
   

Hence, option 2 is the correct answer.

Nuclear energy: 

• Nuclear energy originates from the splitting of uranium atoms – a process called fission.
• This generates heat to produce steam, which is used by a turbine generator to generate electricity.
• Because nuclear power plants do not burn fuel, they do not produce greenhouse gas emissions.
   

Petroleum:

• Crude petroleum consists of hydrocarbons of liquid and gaseous states varying in chemical composition, color, and specific gravity.
• It is an essential source of energy for all internal combustion engines in automobiles, railways, and aircraft.
• Its numerous by-products are processed in petrochemical industries, such as fertilizer, synthetic rubber, synthetic fiber, medicines, vaseline, lubricants, wax, soap, and cosmetics.

The correct answer is Primary Sector.

Key Points

• Primary Sector:
  • It includes the extraction of raw materials.
  • It includes agricultural and allied activities.
  • Examples of the primary sector include Farming, Fishing, Coal Mining, Oil extraction, Diamond mining, etc.
• Secondary Sector:
  • It includes the production of finished goods and components. 
  • Examples of the secondary sector include turning metals into tools and automobiles, Refining petroleum into gasoline, and energy production, etc.
• ​Tertiary Sector:
  • It includes commercial services.
  • Examples of the Tertiary sector include Restaurants, Banking, School teachers, Tourism, etc.
• Quaternary Sector:
  • It is related to ICT and research development.
  • Examples of the Quaternary sector include research and development, data processing, financial services, etc.